Romanesque

Romanesque Art and Architecture, arts and architecture of western Europe from about ad 1000 to the rise of the Gothic style (see Gothic Art and Architecture), in most regions by the latter half of the 12th century, in certain regions somewhat later.

The French Romanesque schools of architecture are characterized by a varied use of vaulted styles. Even in Provence, the center of the most conservative of the schools, the nave is usually covered with a barrel vault. In proportions and details, however, the Provençal churches closely follow Roman examples.

Byzantine

Byzantine Art and Architecture, the art of the Byzantine, or Eastern Roman, Empire. It originated chiefly in Constantinople (present-day İstanbul), the ancient Greek town of Byzantium, which the Roman emperor Constantine the Great chose in ad330 as his new capital and named for himself. The Byzantine Empire continued for almost 1000 years after the collapse of the Western Empire in 476. Byzantine art eventually spread throughout most of the Mediterranean world and eastward to Armenia. Although the conquering Ottomans in the 15th century destroyed much in Constantinople itself, sufficient material survives elsewhere to permit an appreciative understanding of Byzantine art.

Mosaics were the favored medium for the interior adornment of Byzantine churches. The small cubes, or tesserae, that composed mosaics were made of colored glass or enamels or were overlaid with gold leaf. The luminous effects of the mosaics, spread over the walls and vaults of the interior, were well adapted to express the mystic character of Orthodox Christianity. At the same time their rich, jewel-like surfaces were also in keeping with the magnificence of the imperial court, presided over by the emperor, the de facto head of the Orthodox church.

Architecture

As in art, a wide diversity characterizes the ecclesiastical architecture of the early Byzantine period. Two major types of churches, however, can be distinguished: the basilica type, with a long colonnaded nave covered by a wooden roof and terminating in a semicircular apse; and the vaulted centralized church, with its separate components gathered under a central dome. The second type was dominant throughout the Byzantine period.

	Hagia Sophia, İstanbul

	Hagia Sophia, İstanbul Hagia Sophia (Church of the Holy Wisdom) was built in Constantinople (now İstanbul) between 532 and 537 under the auspices of Emperor Justinian I. Innovative Byzantine technology allowed architects Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus to design a basilica with an immense dome over an open, square space, pictured. The original dome fell after an earthquake and was replaced in 563. The church became a mosque after the Ottoman conquest of 1453, and is now a museum. Encarta Encyclopedia Roland and Sabrina Michaud/Woodfin Camp and Associates, Inc.
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Hagia Sophia, or the Church of the Holy Wisdom, in Constantinople, built in five years by Justinian and consecrated in 537, is the supreme example of the centralized type. Although the unadorned exterior masses of Hagia Sophia build up to an imposing pyramidal complex, as in all Byzantine churches it is the interior that counts. In Hagia Sophia the architects Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus created one of the great interior spaces in the history of architecture. The vast central dome, which rises some 56 m (185 ft) from the pavement, is dramatically poised over a circle of light radiating from the cornea of windows at its base. Four curved or spherical triangles, called pendentives, support its rim and are in turn locked into the corners of a square formed by four huge arches. The transition between the circular dome and its square base, achieved through the use of pendentives, was a major contribution of Byzantine builders to the development of architecture. To the east a vast semidome surmounts the three large vaulted niches of the sanctuary below. Arcades that recall the arcaded naves of the basilica churches occupy the ground story on the north and south sides of the central square. To the west is another huge semidome preceding a barrel-vaulted narthex.

ROMAN ART

Roman art had a significant influence on Western culture, in part because of the longevity of the Roman Empire and the amount of territory that the Empire encompassed. Roman art is often criticized for being too dependent on the Greeks. While this is true in part, Roman art and artists made significant advances in different aspects of art and architecture. The rebirth of art in the Western world occurred in the Italy during the Renaissance. The artists of the Renaissance were greatly influenced by their Italian predecessors.

Influences

The art of the Roman Empire was heavily influenced by the Etruscans, Rome's predecessors on the Italian mainland, and by the Hellenic influences of the Greeks. The Romans not only directly imitated and copied Greek artistic ideas, Greek artists were brought to Rome and relied upon to design and repair monumental buildings. The Greek influence was very predominant in Roman painting and sculpture.

Painting

Roman painting served mostly a decorative function. It was influenced by the architecture of the time. Roman buildings tended to have a small number of doors and windows. This left large amounts of wall space. Painting techniques were developed to enhance the walls and to make the living space a more comfortable dwelling. Romans refined the technique of painting mosaics and murals and emphasized natural themes such as landscapes and narrative themes drawn from literature and mythology. The primary colors used in Roman painting were deep red, yellow, green, violet and black. The best preserved examples of Roman wall painting are Herculaneum and Pompeii.

Portrait Sculpture

Roman art also made important strides in sculpture, which can be divided into statues and relief sculptures. The Greek influence is strongly felt in Roman statues, and, in fact, many Roman statues and sculptures are copies or interpretations of Greek sculptures. However, many Roman sculptures are characterized by their realism. Greek statues tend to idealize the human form. Roman sculptors, on the other hand, presented realistic representations of their subjects with all their flaws.

Relief Sculpture

Relief sculptures were works of art carved on long pieces of stone or on the side of buildings. They were created both as decoration and as a tool to record and celebrate an important event. The size of the relief was dependent on the location and purpose for which it was intended. The relief sculpture was either a collection of figures used to represent a sequence of events, or it was intended to represent one significant event or occurrence. The wall was used as a space in which figures appear and disappear. The sculpture changed with the perspective of the viewer.

Rennaissance Art

Renaissance was the period of economic progress where cities were built. The term "Renaissance" came from the French language meaning "rebirth". The period stirred enthusiasm for humanism. The art produced during this period focused on human emotions, specifically heavy and extreme emotions of - anguish, fear, grief and sadness. Seriousness was also the common type of theme in Renaissance.

Painting

The Lamentation. (1305-06)

Giotto St. Francis in the Desert (c. 1485) Giovanni Bellini

Landscape painting bloomed during this period because painters returned back to nature as a subject in art. In their landscapes, linear and aerial perspective were explored. In addition, artists during this period engaged in manipulation of light and shadow to see a new and different visual effect that would later on grow in the interest of the viewing public.

Sculpture

An important characteristic of this period was the spirit of scientific inquiry and investigation. the artists were interested in man's body as well as in what lay beneath - the muscles and the veins.

The Renaissance artists tried

other mediums in art. In portraits, the human face became more expressive with the use of a modeling technique.

Architecture

Plan

The plans of Renaissance buildings have a square, symmetrical appearance in which proportions are usually based on a module.

Façade

Facades are symmetrical around their vertical axis. Church façades are generally surmounted by a pediment and organized by a system of pilasters, arches and entablatures. The columns and windows show a progression towards the center.

Columns and Pilasters

The Roman orders of columns are used:- Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. The orders can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative.

Arches

Arches are semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental. Arches are often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals.

Vaults

Vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothic vault which is frequently rectangular.

Rococo

Rococo art and architecture are characterized by very ornate, fanciful themes and a light air which sets this work apart from earlier pieces produced in the Baroque period, which was both ornate and heavy. The term usually refers to late baroque style, and associated more with interior design.

Rococo rooms were designed as total works of art with elegant and ornate furniture, small sculptures, ornamental mirrors, and tapestry complementing architecture, reliefs, and wall paintings.

Rococo interior is charcterized with the use of:

1. Undulating lines
2. pastel colors
3. golden leaf

Baroque Art

The Baroque style of architecture prevailed in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries and was characterized by elaborate forms and ornamentations. In painting, this is characterized by intense movement, energy, and restlessness.

The compositions of Baroque painting employs diagonal and zigzag lines that best express the vitality and movement quality of the baroque art.

Baroque style in architecture is marked by heavy sculptural, extravagantly ornamented facade. The gian twisted columns, broken pediments, ad a variety of motifs such as scrolls, scallops (shells), urns, angels, floral design, and ribbons.