Greek Art
There are three academic distinctions of later ancient Greek art that match roughly with historical periods of the same names. These are the Archaic, the Classical and the Hellenistic.
The art of ancient Greece has exhibited aesthetic and high technical standards, which inspired generations of European artists.
Pottery
The Ancient Greeks made pottery for everyday use, not for display. Some forms of vases were used as a vessel for drinking, like the amphora. Larger versions of amphora vases were used as storage unit for water or wine. Greek urns were also created to contain the remains of dead persons. On top of the utility of these vases, their exterior was either painted or embellished with relief sculptures (sculptures which project from the surface halfway). The subjects or themes of paintings or sculptures found on these vases were abstract designs, human figures, usually representing the gods or the heroes of Greek history and mythology, and battle and hunting scenes.
Sculpture
As to Ancient Greek free-standing sculptures, they were mostly made of two types of material. Stone, especially marble or other high-quality limestones were used most frequently and carved by hand with metal tools. The Greeks thus decided very early on that the human form was the most important subject for artistic endeavour. Seeing their gods as having human form, there was no distinction between the sacred and the secular in art. Kouro was the name of the most important sculptural form in the Archaic Period. The female version of the Kouro is called Kore. They look like Adam and Eve standing very stiffly, with hands resting on the lumbar area of the body. Since Greek society did not permit the public display of female nudity until the 4th century BC, the Kore was considered to be of less importance in the development of sculpture.
In the classic Period actually Art was more a “product”. The interest was in producing perfect “idealistic” sculptures. The idealization grew in the heart of the Greeks, and so it reflected on their sculptures. This was in the High Classical style. However, In the Hellenistic Time a transition to more realism happened.
Architecture
The Greeks developed the three different orders in Classical Greek architecture. These orders were made up of columns which were usually seen on Greek temples. These three orders were the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Corinthian order was not used as widely as the Doric of Ionic. The reason being, is that the Corinthian order was fancier than the others, and had a lot more detail.
The most basic order for their temples would be the Doric order. It all starts with some wood shafts, which latter was replaced by stone. On the top of the shaft, were circular pads with a square block of wood over it. The vertical columns were used to support the beams. The finishing touches for the roof had to have a flat gables called pediments. The gutter ran along the top of the pediments and ended at a lion's mouth. This acted like a drain. The materials that were used for the roofs were thatch and the terra-cotta and marble. The of Doric temples were similar to those of the Ionic order in lay out and design.
The final order would be the Ionic order. Their columns were more slender than those of the Doric order. Their dimensions were eight to nine meters high, instead of four to five. The columns had a molded base which was placed under them and then sculpted figures on the lower part of the shaft were added. At the top of these shafts, were rectangular blocks of stone, which were carved in the shape of hair or other wave and line shapes.
ROMAN ART
Roman art is the sculpture, pottery, painting, and other art produced in Ancient Rome. Romanic art is nostalgic of Greek ideas. The Romans built their empire on Greek influence. What may be considered a great leap for Romans was the introduction of more refined architectural units such as the dome, which was inspired by the Greek arch, and the use of concrete in architecture. Buildings such as the Flavian Amphitheatre would not have been erected using previous building materials. This amphitheatre was a Greek idea. However, the Romans used the idea to build a brand of amphitheatre that would not use hillsides for sloping. Instead, Romans built their amphitheatre as a fully rounded structure within the city gates. The Roman use of the arch, the use of concrete building methods, the use of the dome all permitted construction of vaulted ceilings and enabled the building of these public spaces and complexes, including the palaces,public baths and basilicas of the “Golden Age” of the empire. Outstanding examples of dome construction include the Pantheon, the Baths of Diocletian, and the Baths of Caracalla.
The catch about Roman art is that they borrowed or some would say stole Greek precedents. Observation was the key in making their subjects downright realistic. In this view, sculptures that are labeled Romanic were characteristically more human, with flaws and imperfection occurring much often. In this sense, the outlook of Romans regarding human subjects was not along the lines of beauty; but within the realms of relevance to reality. What they established was the unidealized meticulous details of the face in portrait sculptures. Portraits of Roman emperors were often made for political purpose, and included in the portrait were the ideological messages of the pose – so this is why sculptures of emperor might look off to being idyllic. On the other hand, the Romans played a bit of documentary drama in their portrayal of heroic battle in sculptures. They used body twisting to show more muscular activity and to suggest that their subject is struggling.
In regard to painting, Roman painting provides a wide variety of themes: animals, still life, scenes from everyday life, portraits, and some mythological subjects. During the Hellenistic period, it evoked the pleasures of the countryside and represented scenes of shepherds, herds, rustic temples, rural mountainous landscapes and country houses.
While the traditional view of Roman artists is that they often borrowed from, copied, or even outright stole Greek precedents (much of the Greek sculpture we know of today is in the form of Roman marble copies), more recent analysis as indicated that Roman art is a highly creative pastiche of Greek, Etruscan, native Italic, and even Egyptian visual culture. Stylistic eclecticism is the hallmark of much of Roman art.
There are three scholarly distinctions of Greek art that correspond roughly with historical periods of the same names. These are the Archaic, the Classical and the Hellenistic. The Archaic period is usually dated from ca. 1000 BC. The Persian Wars of 480 BC to 448 BC are usually taken as the dividing line between the Archaic and the Classical periods, and before the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC is regarded as separating the Classical from the Hellenistic period. Of course, different forms of art developed at different speeds in different parts of the Greek world, and varied to a degree from artist to artist [1] The main physical categories of Greek art are painting (nearly all of which is now lost, except for copies in Pompeii), sculpture, architecture, coin design and pottery, all of which are discussed in depth in their relevant articles.
Byzantine art grew from the art of Ancient Greece, and at least before 1453 never lost sight of its classical heritage, but was distinguished from it in a number of ways. The most profound of these was that the humanist ethic of Ancient Greek art was replaced by the Christian ethic. If the purpose of classical art was the glorification of man, the purpose of Byzantine art was the glorification of God, and particularly of his son, Jesus.
In place of the naked, the figures of God the Father, and became the dominant - indeed almost exclusive - focus of Byzantine art. One of the most important forms of Byzantine art was, and still is, the icon: an image of Christ, the Virgin (particularly the Virgin and Child), or a saint, used as an object of veneration in Orthodox churches and private homes. Greek art was very beautiful.
Ro
Differences between Romanesque and Gothic (focused on Architectural improvement)
The Romanesque architecture combined the influence of Byzantine and Roman styles. The style was named, in the 1800s, because one of its key features, the barrel vault, resembled the classical Roman arch. The roofs of stone buildings were extremely heavy, so walls had to be enormously thick to prevent caving in. Strong walls imply fewer windows, so the interior of Romanesque churches were often dimly lit and had a fortress feel.
Gothic architecture went up like heavenly structures – soaring, colourful and bright. The significant improvements on the architectural system were the flying buttress, pointed arch, and ribbed vault. The flying buttress extends from the exterior walls of churches, safely carrying down to the ground the weight of the entire wall. This implies higher and thinner walls, and more windows which were often stained glass, for the church. Pointed arch was the replacement of rounded arch. Since Gothic arch is divided into two the curving ceilings on both sides of the arch end at a joint or fastened through an intersection or vertex. In this way, the arch is protected from falling off. Gothic churches have huge, ornate, pataled round window called rose windows. Also, the roofs of Gothic churches are much pointier, with tall spires.
Byzantine Art
Byzantine Art and Architecture, the art of the Byzantine, or Eastern Roman, Empire. It originated chiefly in Constantinople (present-day İstanbul), the ancient Greek town of Byzantium, which the Roman emperor Constantine the Great chose in ad330 as his new capital and named for himself. The Byzantine Empire continued for almost 1000 years after the collapse of the Western Empire in 476. Byzantine art eventually spread throughout most of the Mediterranean world and eastward to Armenia. Although the conquering Ottomans in the 15th century destroyed much in Constantinople itself, sufficient material survives elsewhere to permit an appreciative understanding of Byzantine art.
Mosaics were the favored medium for the interior adornment of Byzantine churches. The small cubes, or tesserae, that composed mosaics were made of colored glass or enamels or were overlaid with gold leaf. The luminous effects of the mosaics, spread over the walls and vaults of the interior, were well adapted to express the mystic character of Orthodox Christianity. At the same time their rich, jewel-like surfaces were also in keeping with the magnificence of the imperial court, presided over by the emperor, the de facto head of the Orthodox church.
Architecture
As in art, a wide diversity characterizes the ecclesiastical architecture of the early Byzantine period. Two major types of churches, however, can be distinguished: the basilica type, with a long colonnaded nave covered by a wooden roof and terminating in a semicircular apse; and the vaulted centralized church, with its separate components gathered under a central dome. The second type was dominant throughout the Byzantine period.
Hagia Sophia, or the Church of the Holy Wisdom, in Constantinople, built in five years by Justinian and consecrated in 537, is the supreme example of the centralized type. Although the unadorned exterior masses of Hagia Sophia build up to an imposing pyramidal complex, as in all Byzantine churches it is the interior that counts. In Hagia Sophia the architects Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus created one of the great interior spaces in the history of architecture. The vast central dome, which rises some 56 m (185 ft) from the pavement, is dramatically poised over a circle of light radiating from the cornea of windows at its base. Four curved or spherical triangles, called pendentives, support its rim and are in turn locked into the corners of a square formed by four huge arches. The transition between the circular dome and its square base, achieved through the use of pendentives, was a major contribution of Byzantine builders to the development of architecture. To the east a vast semidome surmounts the three large vaulted niches of the sanctuary below. Arcades that recall the arcaded naves of the basilica churches occupy the ground story on the north and south sides of the central square. To the west is another huge semidome preceding a barrel-vaulted narthex.
Romanesque Art
General characteristics
· very vigorous style in both sculpture and painting
· The capitals of columns are never more exciting than in this period
· High relief was above all the sculptural mode of the period.
· In this period that stained glass became widely used,
· Figures in painting still varied in size in relation to their importance, thus Hierarchical scaling is used to upstage the most powerful religious character.
· The art of the Romanesque period was characterized by an important revival of monumental forms, notably sculpture and fresco painting, which developed in close association with architectural decoration and exhibited a forceful and often severely structural quality. At the same time an element of realism, which parallels the first flowering of vernacular literature, came to the fore. It was expressed in terms of a direct and naive observation of certain details drawn from daily life and a heightened emphasis on emotion and fantasy. For many aspects of its rich imagery Romanesque art depended on the heritage of antiquity and of earlier medieval art, while the prestige of Byzantine art remained high in Western eyes. The pilgrimages and Crusades contributed to an unprecedented expansion of the formal vocabulary through the development of closer contacts between regional cultures and distant peoples.
Sculpture
· The first important monuments of Romanesque sculpture were created in the last decade of the 11th cent. and the first decades of the 12th cent. The primary source of artistic patronage was provided by the monastic institutions, for whom sculptors executed large relief carvings for the decoration of church portals and richly ornate capitals for cloisters. Romanesque sculpture produced an art of extraordinary ornamental complexity, ecstatic in expression, and abounding in seemingly endless combinations of zoomorphic, vegetal, and abstract motifs.
· In France themes portrayed on tympanums of such churches as Moissac, Vézelay, and Autun emphasized the awesome majesty of Christ as ruler and judge of the universe. They often depicted terrifying spectacles of hell. English sculpture showed a tendency toward geometric ornamentation. However, with the introduction in England of continental influences in the mid-12th cent. there also appeared gruesome renditions of the Last Judgment, e.g., at Lincoln Cathedral. In contrast with the demonic nature and animated quality of sculpture in France and in England, there was an assertion of more massive and ponderous figures in N Italy, with the narrative reliefs from Genesisdesigned by Wiligelmo in Modena and by Niccolò in Verona.
Metalwork
· Another aspect of the Romanesque revival was the production of metalwork objects, of which many outstanding examples, such as crucifixes, reliquary shrines, and candlesticks, are still preserved in church treasuries. The most productive centers of this art were the regions adjacent to the Rhine and the Meuse rivers, where the art of bronze casting reached a level of technical mastery sufficient to permit the execution of works of considerable dimension. An outstanding example of Mosan bronze casting is the baptismal font of St. Barthelemy in Liège, a large vessel supported by 12 oxen and decorated with scenes in high relief, executed by Rainer of Huy between 1107 and 1118. It was during this same period that Limoges, in central France, became an extremely active center of metalwork production, specializing in enamelwork.
Fresco
· Fresco painting has been more adversely affected by the accidents of time, but several large cycles, as well as numerous other fragments of Romanesque wall painting, have survived. The large and relatively unbroken expanses of wall space within Romanesque buildings presented an excellent ground for the work of the painter, and the basic forms of Romanesque fresco painting are typically monumental in scale and bold in coloristic effect. Among the foremost examples of this art still largely extant are the cycles of Saint-Savin in western France and Sant'Angelo in Formis in S Italy.
Architecture
The development of Romanesque architecture owes much to the primacy accorded to vaulting. Masonry vaulting since the beginning of Christian architecture had been confined to buildings of relatively small scale and to crypts. Large basilican structures, in a continuation of a tradition inaugurated by the early Christian basilica, were topped by wooden roofs. Romanesque churches, on the other hand, with notable exceptions in Normandy and Italy, sustained massive barrel vaults, making mandatory the reinforcement of load-bearing walls in order to parry the lateral outward thrust. The frequent presence of galleries above the aisles, sometimes with half-barrel vaults, is in all probability rooted in structural considerations connected with the problem of abutment. The limitation of wall openings to a minimum, related to the same concern, contributed to the sober yet somberly impressive character of the light.
GOTHIC ART
Gothic art evolved from Romanesque art and lasted from the mid-12th century to as late as the end of the 16th century in some areas. The term Gothic was coined by classicizing Italian writers of the Renaissance, who attributed the invention (and what to them was the non-classical ugliness) of medieval architecture to the barbarian Gothic tribes that had destroyed the Roman Empire and its classical culture in the 5th century Ad. The term retained its derogatory overtones until the 19th century, at which time a positive critical revaluation of Gothic architecture took place. Although modern scholars have long realized that Gothic art has nothing in truth to do with the Goths, the term Gothic remains a standard one in the study of art history.
Architecture was the most important and original art form during the Gothic period. The principal structural characteristics of Gothic architecture arose out of medieval masons' efforts to solve the problems associated with supporting heavy masonry ceiling vaults over wide spans.
Development of Gothic architecture: Gothic sculpture is linked to the rise in Gothic architecture, which began at the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis (fig.2) in about AD 1130, then spreading to the cathedrals of Sens (1140), Noyons (1150), Senlis (1151), Paris (1163), Laon (1165), and Chartres (1194). By the 13th century, Gothic architecture and sculpture had become fully 
developed in the cathedrals of Amiens and Reims, and spread to major towns in Britain, Iberia, and Germany.
The Romans, who were influenced by the techniques of the Etruscans, began the development of a mature vaulting system in the 1st century AD, which included both the barrel and the groined vault (fig.1), The groined vault is the intersection of two barrel vaults, producing a surface that has arched openings on its four sides, and thus divides the area to be vaulted into squares known as bays. Rediscovered by Romanesque architects, this type of vault became the basis for a more complex and varied type of vault construction in the Middle Ages (Bony 1983; Fitchen 1961).
The main shift of the Gothic era occurred from the older, heavier style of Romanesque architecture, based on a solid stone vault, to the lighter, elevated Gothic style based on both the Romanesque and Islamic use of the pointed arch and cross-ribbed vault. This shift coincided with widespread rebuilding of many older Romanesque cathedrals which had been destroyed by fire. The different phases of Gothic architectures in northern France progressed from the Early Gothic to the High Gothic and Rayonnant styles and the eventual Flamboyant style.
The two main structural innovations of Gothic architecture were pointed arches and ogival or ribbed vaulting (Bony 1983). By the 12th century, architects realized the superiority of the groined vault compared to the barrel vault and started to add ribs, which were used to support the weight of the vault. Cross-ribbed vaulting functions in much the same manner as plain groined vaulting, except that it is reinforced with ribs, and can be made much thinner. The vault uses a diagonally reinforced arch resting on thin pillars, permitting the walls to be hollowed out (and thus, filled with windows), while also allowing the vaults to extend higher. At Amiens, for example, the introduction of an extra transverse rib between the diagonal ribs of the vault allowed for a lighter and more elevated interior. Such light, skeletal construction employing cross ribbed-vaults and other thin carrying structures (interior columns, exterior flying buttresses), replaced the massiveness of Romanesque vaults. This had the revolutionary effect of opening up the interior space of a large building such as a church. As the Gothic era progressed, vaulting became increasing complex and saw the development of more varied forms such as the quatri-partite vault and the sexpartite vault. Slender columns and stained glass windows also gave the church a more spacious and heightened effect (fig.3).
Initially occurring at the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, architects now linked the transept and the choir together, often reducing the size of the transept, and creating single or double ambulatories with radiating chapels and side aisles (fig.2). The 
church exterior was also characterized by double span flying buttresses and the light admitting rose window along with a wealth of sculpture that became much more realistic as the Middle Ages progressed. Increasing amounts of tracery, pinnacles, and gargoyles also became another common feature.
Rococo art is art produced in the Rococo style, a style of artistic expression which emerged in France in the early 18th century; people also refer to this as “French style” art, in a reference to its nation of origin. Rococo art and architecture are characterized by very ornate, fanciful themes and a light air which sets this work apart from earlier pieces produced in the Baroque period, which was both ornate and heavy. Rococo art gave way to the neo-classical school, and many critics of that school dismissed Rococo art as frivolous work without depth, which explains why some people use “Rococo” as a derogatory word for frivolous artwork and architecture today.
Rennaissance Art
Renaissance was the period of economic progress where cities were built. The term "Renaissance" came from the French language meaning "rebirth". The period stirred enthusiasm for humanism. The art produced during this period focused on human emotions, specifically heavy and extreme emotions of - anguish, fear, grief and sadness. Seriousness was also the common type of theme in Renaissance.
Painting
The Lamentation. (1305-06)
Giotto St. Francis in the Desert (c. 1485) Giovanni Bellini
Landscape painting bloomed during this period because painters returned back to nature as a subject in art. In their landscapes, linear and aerial perspective were explored. In addition, artists during this period engaged in manipulation of light and shadow to see a new and different visual effect that would later on grow in the interest of the viewing public.
Sculpture
An important characteristic of this period was the spirit of scientific inquiry and investigation. the artists were interested in man's body as well as in what lay beneath - the muscles and the veins.
The Renaissance artists tried
other mediums in art. In portraits, the human face became more expressive with the use of a modeling technique.
Architecture
Plan
The plans of Renaissance buildings have a square, symmetrical appearance in which proportions are usually based on a module.
Facades
Facades are symmetrical around their vertical axis. Church façades are generally surmounted by a pediment and organized by a system of pilasters, arches and entablatures. The columns and windows show a progression towards the center.
Columns and Pilasters
The Roman orders of columns are used:- Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. The orders can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative.
Arches
Arches are semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental. Arches are often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals.
Vaults
Vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothic vault which is frequently rectangular.
Baroque Art
The Baroque style of architecture prevailed in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries and was characterized by elaborate forms and ornamentations. In painting, this is characterized by intense movement, energy, and restlessness.
The compositions of Baroque painting employs diagonal and zigzag lines that best express the vitality and movement quality of the baroque art.
Baroque style in architecture is marked by heavy sculptural, extravagantly ornamented facade. The gian twisted columns, broken pediments, ad a variety of motifs such as scrolls, scallops (shells), urns, angels, floral design, and ribbons.
ROCOCO ART
Rococo art and architecture are characterized by very ornate, fanciful themes and a light air Rococo art and architecture are characterized by very ornate, fanciful themes and a light air which sets this work apart from earlier pieces produced in the Baroque period, which was both ornate and heavy. The term usually refers to late baroque style, and associated more with interior design.
Rococo rooms were designed as total works of art with elegant and ornate furniture, small sculptures, ornamental mirrors, and tapestry complementing architecture, reliefs, and wall paintings.
Rococo interior is charcterized with the use of:
1. Undulating lines
2. pastel colors
3. golden leaf
Rococo is seen both as the climax and fall of Baroque art. After the heavy works created in the Baroque style artists were ready for a change. The Rococo manner was a reaction against the"grand manner" of art identified with the baroque formality and rigidity of court life. The movement toward a lighter, more charming manner began in French architectural decoration at the end of Louis XIV's reign (d.1715) and quickly spread across Europe. During the regency of Duke of Orleans, regent for the minor heir Louis XV, the formalities of the court gave way to a more casual and intimate atmosphere. Rococo art portrayed a world of artificiality, make-believe, and game-playing. Although less formal, it was essentially an art of the aristocracy and emphasized what seem now to have been the unreflective and indulgent lifestyles of the aristocracy rather than piety, morality, self-discipline, reason, and heroism (all of which can be found in the baroque).
The Rococo style is characterized by pastel colors, gracefully delicate curving forms, fanciful figures, and a lighthearted mood (visually and physically). The essence of Rococo art is light. Extreme highlights are placed on the subject matter and the overall work is light in color, effect, and emotion. Artists paid special attention to fine detail. Form is characterized by delicacy of color, dynamic compositions, and atmospheric effects.
Antoine Watteau is considered to be one of the first Rococo painters. He often created asymmetrical compositions. This type of aesthetic balance became not only an important part of Rococo art, but of design in general.
Eventually the Rococo art was replaced by the more serious style, Neoclassicism. Critics condemned it as "tasteless, frivolous, and symbolic of a corrupt society".
